A Chronicle of Sexuality in the Indian Subcontinent

Introduction

The term sexuality has been extensively deliberated upon, carrying numerous connotations. “Human sexuality” ranges from their capacity to have sexual responses and erotic experiences to sexual attraction. Sexuality is constructed upon individuals’ sexual orientation that is their emotional and sexual attraction to particular genders. Sexuality broadly encompasses the biological, physical, emotional, social, and spiritual aspects.1

The physical/biological component implies the physiology and anatomy of the human reproductive system, the emotional sexuality involves the deep attachment amidst individuals, expressed by emotional or physical demonstrations, spiritual aspects deal with the humans’ spiritual connection through sexuality with other living beings, and societal aspects speak of the impact of one’s society on one’s sexuality. Sexuality has a reciprocal relationship with culture, politics, legality, philosophy, moral codes, ethics, and religious aspects of life. The work of the French social theorist and literary critic Michel Foucault is essential when attempting to define “sexuality.” “Sexuality in its conceptualization can be given a historical construct,” proffered Focault, invoking in some the thought that reconstruction of sexuality over time is possible.2 India as a diverse land, has developed its treatise on sexuality through the myriad cultures, beliefs and faiths it encompasses. We chronicle the origin and evolution of sexuality in the Indian subcontinent and its reconstruction over the ages.

Sexuality in Antiquated India

Sex and sexuality underwent an apparent dissension in Indian minds which is best explained through the historical pathways. The beginning of Indian culture dating back to the Indus Valley Civilization, 2700 bce, forms the root of cultural philosophies, including sexuality. The first attestation of sexuality and perspectives on sex is found in the ancient texts of Hinduism and Buddhism, particularly the Vedic Script that provide righteous perspectives on sexuality, wedlock and rituals for increased productivity.3

Early on, in 1500 bce, Indian epics, namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, ingrained deeply intothe culture of Asia and eventually left its mark on Chinese, Japanese, Tibetan, and Southeast Asian culture. As purported by these texts, sex was considered a reciprocal duty within matrimony, equal satisfaction of both partners being the norm; however, sex and sexuality remained within hushed discussions, as far as the previously mentioned religions were concerened.3 Polyandrous and polygamous marriages were common among rulers to ensure succession, whereas the citizens maintained monogamous relations. Then, approximately after 1500 years, the birth of Mahavira was witnessed, and the Upanishads were written around 500 bce, the period from first to sixth centuries saw the Kama Sutra by Vatsyayana come to fruition, formerly bearing the title of Vatsyayana Kamasutram (Vatsyayana’s aphorisms on love). The conceptualization of the history of sex was illustrated by India, and it is debated that the cardinal written word wherein “Kama” was dealt as a science4 came from ancient India. Sexual understanding and philosophy being expressed through,5 crafts, and written classics came to be spearheaded by India. Kama sutra or kama shastra, “the discipline, art and science of love,” served a dual role of research into sexual desire, beyond marital boundaries as well as a practical manual to sexual gratification within matrimony. Kama Sutra remains the most celebrated in modern times, but it is not the sole work on these lines from bygone India. Modern times found the text archives dissipating across borders with Buddhist manuscripts where Chinese adaptations came forth. A similar treatise, Charvaks’ Charvak Darshan was the reflection of pre-Vedic/Vedic era which compounded that the clear stream of reasoning in life is supreme, with nonexistence of the God and even ideas pertaining to kama.6

The tenth to twelfth century period bore the rendition of unfettered craftsmanship in India, with free portrayals of amorous thoughts and ideas. To cite examples,we have the rendition of apsaras on ancient Indian temples which can be likened to European and Arabic mythologizes characterization of nymphs and sirens.1 The most symbolic of this era remains the Khajuraho temples in Madhya Pradesh, India dating back to ninth to twelfth century, also the Kama Tantra and Smriti Ratnavali of Vacaspriti of the fourteenth century.6 Literature in the form of the classic Islamic compendium, The Perfumed Garden, is the avowed illustration of sexual knowledge. The 16th century public perception of the attributes involving romantic partners and sexual themes has been portrayed vividly.7

Sexuality in Provincial Era

The period of 15th to 17th centuries, the age of discovery, saw the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the English, circumnavigating Africa and reestablishing trade routes to India. The subsequent 2 centuries saw the French and British power playing for dominance with the British emerging the dominant in the early nineteeth century. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 resulted in the pervasive denouncement of the East India Company’s alleged deficiencies followed by the Government of India Act 1858, replacing the emissary function of the East India group, thereby signaling in the direct rule of the British monarchy. India then found itself more subservient to Britain’s codes of morality. Indian sexual liberalism bore the brunt of Victorian values. The liberal attitudes of Hinduism and the mindset of pluralism were discarded as “primitive, barbaric,” citing as a proof of inferiority of the East. Reformation movements, namely the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal and the Prarthana Samaj in Bombay Presidency, attempted to transform the civic life in India. These movements brought forth a significant level of societal change. Ironically, freshly acquired cognizance brought about advocacy for women’s rights, education and an amendment in consenting age and assent to widow remarriage, but also brought with it an austere attitude to sex even within conforms of matrimony.3

Impact of Religion on Sexuality and Marriage

Religion and religious scriptures have deeply ingrained themselves into the construct of sexuality, and attitude toward sex in multicultural and diverse India. India is home to the Christian faith, Islam, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, and the youngest of all, Sikhism, apart from the ancient Hinduism and Buddhism, thereby creating one of the world’s most diverse cultural melting pots:

The Lord by wisdom founded the earth; by understanding he established the heavens (Proverbs 3:19).

As depicted in the Old Testament, the wisdom refers to the basic design of the universe. When the universe was created by God, much like a building, he built upon a archetype, namely wisdom. The elementary underlying archetype upon which the universe is assembled is wisdom. The insight into this basic design upon which the world rests is essential to lead a fruitful life. Christianity believes that a factor bringing insight into this design is watchful protection of sex within the sanctity of matrimony.8

Sex functions as an enhancer of strengthening bond, instrumental in augmenting intimacy thereby rendering its positive effects on the couple. Betterment may involve mutual gratification, shared contentment, togetherness and strength that comes from mutual validation and absolute faith. The relationship of this magnitude is said to fulfill ardent desires. Moreover, believers, possibly citing from Genesis 2:18 (It is not good for the man to be alone), remark that the social nature of humans with the inherent desire for intimate relationships finds its basis in sex.9 The very essence of humanity boils down in certain ways to the interaction between genders. Symbolically, sex personifies mortal existence as “being in fellow-humanity.” Perceptions describing the sexual act as channeling the divine is also known. The experience is regarded as religious by few,stating “it is God’s invitation to reunion” or convergence of the body with its soul, and “in this reunion God is experienced, whether there is consciousness of the divine name or not.” The Bible detests ontologism associated with sex, renouncing any fusion of divinity with Eros; however, it does purport the marital bond of husband-wife, so also the newly wed spouses as a meaningful echo of the bond of God with his subjects and the Lord with his church.10

Islam is the second largest practiced religion in India. In Islam, marriage is an endogamous entity, implying that entering into wedlock outside one’s faith renders the nuptial vows invalid. Similarly, the conversion of a Muslim partner into other religions following nuptials renders said marriage invalid.10^,11 Polygamy being legalized by Islam has always been widely debated globally. As stated by the Quran,“Do justice to them all, but you won’t be able to, so don’t fall for one totally while ignoring other wives.” Wedding rituals include the offering of a wedding present (dowry) to the bride from the groom and family, which becomes her private resource. Customarily known as Mahr, this endowment ensures the protection of a woman in the eventuality of unforeseen occurrences, which is hailed as a laudatory practice. Contraceptive practices is controversial; it is permitted when gestation impacts the mothers’ health negatively. The question of the existence of resources to sustain the child as a reason for contemplating contraceptive practices remains a vision. Belief that sustenance of an offspring is under the power of the Almighty, and one must bear several progeny also exists.12

Hinduism consider wedlock as a holy rite of passage whereas Jainism views the same as a legal settlement. Matrimony is championed such that the progeny resulting from the marriage would follow the same religious path. The functionality remains to make sex permissible within matrimony. Sexual relations between the married couple is stringently propagational hence indulging in sex is restricted to the fertile duration.13 Celibacy-chaste living (Brahmacharya) forms the norm in Jainism. The epitome of orthodox Jainism is depicted by the Monks—those who surrender their existence to walking the Jain path of ethics, remaining austerely virtuous in mind and body. Virtuous living is essential to Jainism as per beliefs; for them, sexual indulgence obstructs the road to liberation. The quest and aspiration for making their mortal life transcend into spiritual dimensions thus completing their circle of transmigration remains the order for monks and ascetics. Sexual passion is considered powerful with the capacity to overturn sound thoughts and righteous behavior, thus resulting in bad karma (deeds). Thus, conquering passion thereby preventing expenditure of vigor in the pursuit of sensual desires is part of the vow. The monks have a insightful comprehension of the influence of sex and are counseled against its permissiveness. They are to avoid memories of prior sexual experiences that transpired before monkhood and refrain from sexual thoughts. Jainism allows engagement in sex only within matrimony. Once the marriage has produced a son, sex must be relinquished. The family-man must be content with his own wife and should perceive all other female in gender as family, out of sexual boundaries. Overindulgence in sexual activities is to be restricted even within matrimony, and a few Jain scholars write that this will aid population control. Chaste living purports believers to abstain from premarital sex and to refrain from sexual thoughts. Indulgence in pornography or sexually stimulating material is to be avoided, for retention of lucid thoughts, kept clear of desire. Sexual deviations are unacceptable, including contact with lower creatures and lifeless objects.14

In the Zoroastrian community, it is held that God imparted to the Seer Zarthustra, that martrimony is not only a righteous path, it is also a duty, that when fulfilled is a cause for earthly celebration. Only when one is born a Parsi, they are to be considered a Parsi. Parsi fathers and non-Parsi mothers have a slackening of the rule but is contrary in children born of Parsi mothers but non believer fathers, with them being denied Parsi status. The 1945 Special Marriages Act provides for a person marrying a non-Parsi to maintain their faith. For example, a Parsi lady married to a Hindu Gujarati was declined her last rites at the Tower of Silence, requiring a signed affidavit by the next of kin insisting that the departed was Zoroastrian in faith.15 At the same time, conservative members of the community like Dastur Peshton Peer have likened seeking wedlock out of community to committing adultery. The community perceives alternate sexual orientation to be sinful.16^,17

The Sikh religion is rooted in collective Punjab, instituted in 15th Century by the utopian guide Guru Nanak Dev. The principal belief is a life of candor. It maintained the doctrine of equality, teaching that all are created equal, discarding discrimination based on caste or gender, as against those prejudices that ran rife in the communities. As propagated by Guru Nanak Dev, equal rights was advocated for women with respect in equal proportion as men. In fact, the founder contended earnestly for women’s welfare and upliftment during his life. Sikhism promotes widow remarriage whilst denouncing reproachful rituals like the dowry-giving and the purdah systems. Their doctrines describe marriage as “Anand Karaj,” and best interpreted to mean“blissful union.” This religion being youthful in its inception, it grants marriage to take place only with mutual consent of the families as well as wishes of the prospective bride and the groom. Sole imperative being the bride and groom have to be of Sikh faith. Criteria prevalent among other religions involving expectations of the caste and the social status, are not determinant while considering the “Anand Karaj.” Moreover, the date of wedding ceremony is not directed by stellar estimations and fabled superstitions. The religion holds all days in equal measure of divinity and purity.18

Gender Roles, Sexuality, and Sexual behavior

Vedic India, as documented by its literature, gave women an equal significance wherein the women were regarded with decorum and thoughtfulness. On the contrary, the post-Vedic age observed a gradual and consistent diminution of their significance within the household and community. Furthermore, Medieval India evidenced not only diminution, but also a distinct degeneration in their status. The pre-Independence Era was rife with the purdah system involving isolation of women, Sati custom wherein widows were immolated on the husband’s pyre, concept of dowry, and child marriages.

Eventually, the gender role became stoic, beginning in early life and extending into adulthood. The roles of husband and wife, and contributions such that families were sustained, were clearly demarcated by the distribution of chores on the basis of sex. An individual’s role in society involves the behavior that is socially outlined and awaited from that person due their existence as a male or female. Indian patriarchy, the Vedic literature, ancient, feudal, as well as contemporary Hinduism, find the exemplar in fables, lores, customs, dogmas’ and symbolism to be chiefly male. Nevertheless, just as Goddess ritualism victoriously made its place in the midst of male deities, the force of feminine devout activity,ritualism essentially, has gathered momentum in the overall scope of Hinduism.19

Since time, heterosexual act has remained the singular socially acceptable sexual practice and the prevailing interaction among genders in community. Homosexuals having existed even in ancient India and being depicted often in the ancient literature never secured a social validation in any fraction of the Indian society. Manusmriti, Arthasastra, and Kama Sutra, texts depicting ancient India, have referred to attraction between the same sexes and behavior. Scriptural deities in Hindusim have dualities in gender, an example being Bhagiratha, being born from the union of 2 women. The epic Mahabharata cited Shikhandi and Ardhanarishwar, the essence of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvathi, becoming composite as one has also been described. Ayyappa (dual gendered god), a synergistic deity, the female avatar of Vishnu and the son of Shiva and Mohini, is worshiped devoutly in South India. Numerous etchings and stone carvings of Khajuraho and the Konark Sun Temple portray same gender affiliation.20 Of Significance is also the descriptions of crossgender and crossgender affiliation in the Ramayana and Mahabharatha. Arjuna, disguised as Birhannala, went into a battle with the Kauravas in support of prince Uttara. Having arrived against the Kauravas, he descended, prayed to Almighty, proceeded to remove the conch bangles he adorned, replacing them with leather gauntlets. Having tied his sweeping hair using a cloth, he faced the east, contemplated on his armor, ascended his chariot, and rejoiced as he lifted his familiar Gandiva bow. He proceeded to defeat the Kauravas in the battle that followed.

The Hijra community is the most common symbol of gender variance in India. Hijras, an Urdu word for eunuch, reside essentially in the bigger cities and are of Hindu faith, men who attire themselves as females. They are found to have religious roles in Hinduism, performing psychic channels for female goddesses, with their parts at weddings and other festivities. Often the adolescent males migrate from familial homes to connect with adult Hijras in metropolitans. Some may resort to castration to finalize their gender status. Their societal role is enmeshed with their sustenance, which involves providing revelry at weddings and other ceremonies such as the birth of a child, mundan ceremony, at times uninvited but always expecting to be remunerated. Engagement in sexual pusuits with men for monitory gain or as a way to gratify their own sexual appetite also forms part of their habits.21

Until very recently, gay sex continued to be a punishable offence as per Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code, with a previous ruling in 2009 decriminalizing the same and which was again overturned in 2013 and September 6, 2018 and laid to rest the twists and turns in the controversial ban with the Supreme Court decriminalizing Section 377. This paradigm shift, however, does not ensure a path less fraught by stigma, prejudice, and possibly significant mental health adversities in the homosexual/lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer (LGBTQ) community until research is furthered in the area as pointed out by Rao and Jacob, Jacob,22^,23 and others.24 In 2014, the Indian Psychiatric Society acknowledged that homosexuality is neither a mental illness nor a disease.25 The Indian Psychiatric Society in collaboration with the Bombay Psychiatric Society arranged the first conference on March 10, 2018 to address mental health issues faced by the LGBT community, during which the President of Indian Psychiatric Society Dr Ajit Bhide deliberated upon the sexual identity issues of the LGBT community. The primary objective of this conference was to “positively impact LGBT community by being better equipped to help them.”26

Disease Processes in Sexuality

The role of sex and sexuality in ancient India, along with its variations over the centuries, has also impacted upon disease processes occurring in present-time India. Indian folklore and alternative medicine like Ayurveda explain about the 7 bodily fluids (called dhatus), each of which undergoes honing into the subsequent concentrate with the final concentrate being semen, that is, chyle is refined into blood, blood into flesh, flesh into fat, fat into bone, bone into marrow, and marrow into semen. The semen is exalted as the panacea, and it is further elaborated that 40 days and 40 drops of blood are required to form single drop of semen with semen having a capacity of 20 tolas (6.8 ounces).28^,28 Sri Lankan and Unani (Greek) medicine share similar beliefs that 40 drops of blood produce single drop of semen.29^-31 Term of “dhat syndrome” was officially coined by Wig.32 “Dhat syndrome,” a culture-bound anxiety syndrome, is prevalent in India, Pakistan, China.33^,34 It stems from strong convictions about the relationship between spiritual, physical health, and semen. Several local terms have come to imply the passing of semen in urine as “dhatu rog” and named also as “jiryan.” Ayurvedic scholars regard semen loss as a severe illness, leading to physical debilitation, ill health, thereby promoting herbal and dietary therapies.35 The subsequent noteworthy condition that came to light was the existence of guilt associated with masturbatory practices. Studies by Nakra et al36 reported, prior to the development of potency disorders, 75% of the patients had practiced masturbation and around 43% reported guilt associated with masturbation.

The Ayurvedic art of Vajikarana or virility therapy imparts nutrition to the man’s body, making him competent to perform sexually with the woman. The teachings of Charaka (the author of Charaka Samhitha, an ancient Ayurvedic text on internal medicine), pioneer to the art and science of Ayurveda, report that the potions generate the stamina and vigor of a horse by increasing the quantity and quality of semen, sperm count, and sperm motility. Taking of these aphrodisiacs is claimed to benefit the man by retaining an erection for increased length of time. The hypothesis of decreased libido, as argued by Charaka include (a) birth defects leading to impotency (b) Veeryaavarodha, that is, controlling of sexual urges for longer duration leading to the obstruction of semen, and (c) Shukra kshaya, decreased quantity of semen due to overindulgence in sexual activities. The eventuality of Clibya (impotency) if Vajikarana dravyas (libido enhancers) are not consumed by such persons regularly and (d) consumption of spicy, salty, and hot food that increase pitta and destroys Shukra (semen) was also explained. Vajikarana involves processes of oblation, purification, decoction enema, and lubricating enema. Dietary advices that assist this process include milk, oil, ghee, meat soup, boiled rice along with ghee, sugar, and honey. The need for a relaxed, cheerful, and contented mindset is highlighted.37^,38

Conclusion

Human sexuality is a nexus with several layers. Admission of the divergence between desire, practices, and sexual identity ratifies the multifaceted aspects of sexuality. In actuality, the very case that the various dimensions may not always be synchronous in a person conveys the intricacies involved. Sometimes the discordance between the gender role and identity and the biological sex augment the issues. As is true of intricate behaviors and temperamental attributes, organic and environmental along with historical imprints coalesce resulting in specific impacts on sexuality and its expression. As Foucault aptly surmised sexuality will continue to be redefined and reconstructed in all its complexity with the passage of time, thus too in India.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.